An Overview of Collision Avoidance Approaches and Network Architecture of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

  • Authors

    • Ahmad H. Sawalmeh
    • Noor Shamsiah Othman
    2018-11-30
    https://doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i4.35.27395
  • UAVs, FANETs, Collision Avoidance, UAVs Communication Protocols.

  • As an autonomous vehicle, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are subjected to several challenges. One of the challenges is for UAV to be able to avoid collision.  Many collision avoidance methods have been proposed to address this issue. Furthermore, in a multi-UAV system, it is also important to address communication issue among UAVs for cooperation and collaboration. This issue can be addressed by setting up an ad-hoc network among UAVs. There is also a need to consider the challenges in the deployment of UAVs, as well as, in the development of collision avoidance methods and the establishment of communication for cooperation and collaboration in a multi-UAV system. In this paper, we present general challenges in the deployment of UAV and comparison of UAV communication services based on its operating frequency. We also present major collision avoidance approaches, and specifically discuss collision avoidance approaches that are suitable for indoor applications. We also present the Flying Ad-hoc Networks (FANET) network architecture, communication and routing protocols for each Open System Interconnection (OSI) communication layers.

     

  • References

    1. [1] D. H. Lyon, “A military perspective on small unmanned aerial vehicles,†IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 27– 31, (2004).

      [2] D. Orfanus, E. P. de Freitas, and F. Eliassen, “Self-organization as a supporting paradigm for military UAV relay networks,†IEEE Communications Letters, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 804–807, (2016).

      [3] B.-N. Cheng, F. J. Block, B. R. Hamilton, D. Ripplinger, C. Timmerman, L. Veytser, and A. Narula-Tam, “Design considerations for next-generation airborne tactical networks,†IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 52, no. 5, pp. 138–145, (2014).

      [4] S. G. Gupta, M. M. Ghonge, and P. Jawandhiya, “Review of unmanned aircraft system (UAS),†International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering & Technology, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 1646–1658, (2013).

      [5] S. Hayat, E. Yanmaz, and R. Muzaffar, “Survey on unmanned aerial vehicle networks for civil applications: A communications viewpoint,†IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 2624– 2661, (2016).

      [6] H. Shakhatreh, A. Sawalmeh, A. Al-Fuqaha, Z. Dou, E. Almaita, I. Khalil, N. S. Othman, A. Khreishah, and M. Guizani, “Unmanned aerial vehicles: A survey on civil applications and key research challenges,†arXiv preprint arXiv:1805.00881, (2018).

      [7] H. Shakhatreh, A. Khreishah, A. Alsarhan, I. Khalil, A. Sawalmeh, and N. S. Othman, “Efficient 3D placement of a UAV using particle swarm optimization,†in IEEE 8th International Conference on Information and Communication Systems, (2017), pp. 258–263.

      [8] S. Chandrasekharan, K. Gomez, A. Al-Hourani, S. Kandeepan, T. Rasheed, L. Goratti, L. Reynaud, D. Grace, I. Bucaille, T. Wirth et al., “Designing and implementing future aerial communication networks,†IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 26–34, (2016).

      [9] H. Shakhatreh, A. Khreishah, N. S. Othman, and A. Sawalmeh, “Maximizing indoor wireless coverage using uavs equipped with directional antennas,†in IEEE 13th Malaysia International Conference on Communications (MICC). IEEE, (2017), pp. 175–180.

      [10] Sawalmeh, N. S. Othman, H. Shakhatreh, and A. Khreishah, “Providing wireless coverage in massively crowded events using UAVs,†in IEEE 13th Malaysia International Conference on Communications. IEEE, (2017), pp. 158–163.

      [11] H. Pham, S. A. Smolka, S. D. Stoller, D. Phan, and J. Yang, “A survey on unmanned aerial vehicle collision avoidance systems,†arXiv preprint arXiv:1508.07723, (2015).

      [12] B. M. Albaker and N. Rahim, “A survey of collision avoidance approaches for unmanned aerial vehicles,†in International Conference for Technical Postgraduates. IEEE, (2009), pp. 1–7.

      [13] B. Gardiner, W. Ahmad, T. Cooper, M. Haveard, J. County, J. Holt, and S. Biaz, “Collision avoidance techniques for unmanned aerial vehicles technical report #csse11-01,†Technical Report, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, Tech. Rep., (2011).

      [14] Alexopoulos, A. Kandil, P. Orzechowski, and E. Badreddin, “A comparative study of collision avoidance techniques for unmanned aerial vehicles,†in IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. IEEE, (2013), pp. 1969–1974.

      [15] H. Sedaghat-Pisheh, A. R. Rivera, S. Biaz, and R. Chapman, “Collision avoidance algorithms for unmanned aerial vehicles using computer vision,†Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 191–197, (2017).

      [16] Bekmezci, O. K. Sahingoz, and S¸. Temel, “Flying ad-hoc networks (FANETs): A survey,†Ad Hoc Networks, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 1254–1270, (2013).

      [17] O. K. Sahingoz, “Networking models in flying ad-hoc networks

      [18] (FANETs): Concepts and challenges,†Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems, vol. 74, no. 1-2, p. 513, (2014).

      [19] L. Gupta, R. Jain, and G. Vaszkun, “Survey of important issues in UAV communication networks,†IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 1123–1152, (2016).

      [20] D. W. Matolak, “Unmanned aerial vehicles: Communications challenges and future aerial networking,†in IEEE International Conference on Computing, Networking and Communications, (2015), pp. 567–572.

      [21] Y. Javaid, W. Sun, V. K. Devabhaktuni, and M. Alam, “Cyber security threat analysis and modeling of an unmanned aerial vehicle system,†in IEEE Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security. IEEE, (2012), pp. 585–590.

      [22] S. Rosati, K. Kruzelecki, G. Heitz, D. Floreano, and B. Rimoldi, “Dy-˙ namic routing for flying ad hoc networks,†IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 1690–1700, (2016).

      [23] B. Vergouw, H. Nagel, G. Bondt, and B. Custers, “Drone technology: Types, payloads, applications, frequency spectrum issues and future developments,†in The Future of Drone Use. Springer, (2016), pp.

      [24] 21–45.

      [25] C. Watts, V. G. Ambrosia, and E. A. Hinkley, “Unmanned aircraft systems in remote sensing and scientific research: Classification and considerations of use,†Remote Sensing, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 1671–1692, (2012).

      [26] Stocker, R. Bennett, F. Nex, M. Gerke, and J. Zevenbergen, “Review¨ of the current state of UAV regulations,†Remote Sensing, vol. 9, no. 5, p. 459, (2017).

      [27] R. Clarke and L. B. Moses, “The regulation of civilian drones’ impacts on public safety,†Computer Law & Security Review, vol. 30, no. 3, pp.

      [28] 263–285, (2014).

      [29] Archick, R. F. Grimmett, and S. Kan, “European Union’s arms embargo on China: Implications and options for US policy. CRS report to Congress.†LIBRARY OF CONGRESS WASHINGTON DC CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, (2005).

      [30] Y. Zeng, R. Zhang, and T. J. Lim, “Wireless communications with unmanned aerial vehicles: opportunities and challenges,†IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 36–42, (2016).

      [31] Al-Hourani, S. Kandeepan, and A. Jamalipour, “Modeling air-toground path loss for low altitude platforms in urban environments,†in IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM),, (2014), pp.2898–2904.

      [32] D. W. Matolak and R. Sun, “Air-ground channel characterization for unmanned aircraft systems—part iii: The suburban and near-urban environments,†IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, (2017).

      [33] Q. Feng, J. McGeehan, E. K. Tameh, and A. R. Nix, “Path loss models for air-to-ground radio channels in urban environments,†in IEEE 63rd

      [34] Vehicular Technology Conference, VTC, vol. 6, (2006), pp. 2901–2905.

      [35] P. Data, “Prediction methods required for the design of terrestrial broadband millimetric radio access systems operating in a frequency range of about 20-50 ghz,†Draft New Recommendation ITU-R P.[DOC. 3/47], Working Party K, vol. 3, (2003).

      [36] T. Imai, K. Kitao, N. Tran, N. Omaki, Y. Okumura, and K. Nishimori,

      [37] “Outdoor-to-indoor path loss modeling for 0.8 to 37 GHz band,†in IEEE 10th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation, (2016), pp. 1–4.

      [38] M. K. Samimi and T. S. Rappaport, “3-D statistical channel model for millimeter-wave outdoor mobile broadband communications,†in IEEE International Conference on Communications. IEEE, (2015), pp. 2430–2436.

      [39] M. R. Akdeniz, Y. Liu, M. K. Samimi, S. Sun, S. Rangan, T. S. Rappaport, and E. Erkip, “Millimeter wave channel modeling and cellular capacity evaluation,†IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 1164–1179, (2014).

      [40] J.-W. Park, H.-D. Oh, and M.-J. Tahk, “UAV collision avoidance based on geometric approach,†in SICE Annual Conference. IEEE, (2008), pp. 2122–2126.

      [41] Chakravarthy and D. Ghose, “Obstacle avoidance in a dynamic environment: A collision cone approach,†IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics-Part A: Systems and Humans, vol. 28, no. 5, pp.562–574, (1998).

      [42] Mujumdar and R. Padhi, “Nonlinear geometric and differential geometric guidance of UAVs for reactive collision avoidance,†INDIAN INST OF SCIENCE BANGALORE (INDIA), Tech. Rep., (2009).

      [43] E. Dubins, “On curves of minimal length with a constraint on average curvature, and with prescribed initial and terminal positions and tangents,†American Journal of Mathematics, vol. 79, no. 3, pp. 497–516, 1957.

      [44] Shanmugavel, A. Tsourdos, B. White, and R. Zbikowski, “Co-˙ operative path planning of multiple uavs using dubins paths with clothoid arcs,†Control Engineering Practice, vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 1084– 1092, (2010).

      [45] Tsourdos, B. White, and M. Shanmugavel, Cooperative path planning of unmanned aerial vehicles. John Wiley & Sons, (2010), vol. 32.

      [46] O. Khatib, “Real-time obstacle avoidance for manipulators and mobile robots,†The International Journal of Robotics Research, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 90–98, 1986.

      [47] J. B. Saunders, “Obstacle avoidance, visual automatic target tracking, and task allocation for small unmanned air vehicles,†(2009).

      [48] Gageik, P. Benz, and S. Montenegro, “Obstacle detection and collision avoidance for a UAV with complementary low-cost sensors,†IEEE Access, vol. 3, pp. 599–609, (2015).

      [49] Y. Lyu, Q. Pan, C. Zhao, Y. Zhang, and J. Hu, “Feature article: Visionbased UAV collision avoidance with 2D dynamic safety envelope,†IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 16–26, July (2016).

      [50] Luo, S. I. McClean, G. Parr, L. Teacy, and R. De Nardi, “UAV position estimation and collision avoidance using the extended kalman filter,†IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 62, no. 6, pp. 2749–2762, (2013).

      [51] K. Schmid, T. Tomic, F. Ruess, H. Hirschmuller, and M. Suppa, “Stereo¨ vision based indoor/outdoor navigation for flying robots,†in IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. IEEE, (2013), pp. 3955–3962.

      [52] H. Alvarez, L. M. Paz, J. Sturm, and D. Cremers, “Collision avoidance for quadrotors with a monocular camera,†in Experimental Robotics. Springer, (2016), pp. 195–209.

      [53] K. Schmid, P. Lutz, T. Tomic, E. Mair, and H. Hirschm´ uller, “Au-¨ tonomous vision-based micro air vehicle for indoor and outdoor navigation,†Journal of Field Robotics, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 537–570, (2014).

      [54] Y. M. Mustafah, A. W. Azman, and F. Akbar, “Indoor UAV positioning using stereo vision sensor,†Procedia Engineering, vol. 41, pp. 575– 579, (2012).

      [55] Mcfadyen, L. Mejias, P. Corke, and C. Pradalier, “Aircraft collision avoidance using spherical visual predictive control and single point features,†in IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. IEEE, (2013), pp. 50–56.

      [56] S. Roelofsen, D. Gillet, and A. Martinoli, “Reciprocal collision avoidance for quadrotors using on-board visual detection,†in IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), IEEE, (2015), pp. 4810–4817.

      [57] K. Chee and Z. Zhong, “Control, navigation and collision avoidance for an unmanned aerial vehicle,†Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, vol. 190, pp. 66–76, (2013).

      [58] N. Gageik, T. Muller, and S. Montenegro, “Obstacle detection and col-¨ lision avoidance using ultrasonic distance sensors for an autonomous quadrocopter,†University of Wurzburg, Aerospace Information Tech- nology (Germany) Wurzburg September , (2012).

      [59] S. Huh, D. H. Shim, and J. Kim, “Integrated navigation system using camera and gimbaled laser scanner for indoor and outdoor autonomous flight of uavs,†in IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. IEEE, (2013), pp. 3158–3163.

      [60] T. Tomic, K. Schmid, P. Lutz, A. Domel, M. Kassecker, E. Mair, I. L. Grixa, F. Ruess, M. Suppa, and D. Burschka, “Toward a fully autonomous UAV: Research platform for indoor and outdoor urban search and rescue,†IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 46–56, (2012).

      [61] Chambers, S. Achar, S. Nuske, J. Rehder, B. Kitt, L. Chamberlain, J. Haines, S. Scherer, and S. Singh, “Perception for a river mapping robot,†in IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. IEEE, (2011), pp. 227–234.

      [62] Bouachir, A. Abrassart, F. Garcia, and N. Larrieu, “A mobility model for UAV ad-hoc network,†in International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems. IEEE, (2014), pp. 383–388.

      [63] E. Kuiper and S. Nadjm-Tehrani, “Mobility models for UAV group reconnaissance applications,†in International Conference on Wireless and Mobile Communications. IEEE, (2006), pp. 33–33.

      [64] M. H. Tareque, M. S. Hossain, and M. Atiquzzaman, “On the routing in flying ad-hoc networks,†in Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems. IEEE, (2015), pp. 1–9.

      [65] W. Group et al., “Part11: Wireless LAN medium access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications,†ANSI/IEEE Std.

      [66] 802.11, (1999).

      [67] Y. Gu, M. Zhou, S. Fu, and Y. Wan, “Airborne WiFi networks through directional antennae: An experimental study,†in IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference. IEEE, (2015), pp. 1314– 1319.

      [68] Jawhar, N. Mohamed, J. Al-Jaroodi, D. P. Agrawal, and S. Zhang, “Communication and networking of uav-based systems: Classification and associated architectures,†Journal of Network and Computer Applications, (2017).

      [69] T. D. Ho, J. Park, and S. Shimamoto, “QoS constraint with prioritized frame selection CDMA MAC protocol for WSN employing UAV,†in IEEE GLOBECOM Workshops. IEEE, (2010), pp. 1826–1830.

      [70] Y. Cai, F. R. Yu, J. Li, Y. Zhou, and L. Lamont, “Medium access control for unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) ad-hoc networks with full-duplex radios and multipacket reception capability,†IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 390–394, (2013).

      [71] Alshbatat and L. Dong, “Adaptive MAC protocol for UAV communication networks using directional antennas,†in International Conference on Networking, Sensing and Control. IEEE, (2010), pp.598–603.

      [72] S. Temel and I. Bekmezci, “Lodmac: Location oriented directional MAC protocol for fanets,†Computer Networks, vol. 83, pp. 76–84, (2015).

      [73] C.-M. Cheng, P.-H. Hsiao, H. Kung, and D. Vlah, “Maximizing throughput of UAV-relaying networks with the load-carry-and-deliver paradigm,†in IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference. IEEE, (2007), pp. 4417–4424.

      [74] T. Clausen and P. Jacquet, “Optimized link state routing protocol (olsr),†Tech. Rep., (2003).

      [75] C. E. Perkins and P. Bhagwat, “Highly dynamic destination-sequenced distance-vector routing (DSDV) for mobile computers,†in ACM SIG-COMM Computer Communication Review, vol. 24, no. 4. ACM, (1994), pp. 234–244.

      [76] Alshabtat, L. Dong, J. Li, and F. Yang, “Low latency routing algorithm for unmanned aerial vehicles ad-hoc networks,†International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering, vol. 6, no. 1, pp.48–54, (2010).

      [77] B. Johnson and D. A. Maltz, “Dynamic source routing in ad hoc wireless networks,†Mobile computing, pp. 153–181, (1996).

      [78] S. Murthy and J. J. Garcia-Luna-Aceves, “An efficient routing protocol for wireless networks,†Mobile Networks and applications, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 183–197, (1996).

      [79] H. Forsmann, R. E. Hiromoto, and J. Svoboda, “A time-slotted ondemand routing protocol for mobile ad hoc unmanned vehicle systems,†in Proceedings SPIE, vol. 6561, Unmanned Systems Technology IX, (2007), p. 65611.

      [80] Z. J. Haas, “A hybrid framework for routing in ad hoc networks,†Ad hoc networking, pp. 221–253, (2002).

      [81] V. Park, “Temporally-ordered routing algorithm (TORA) version 1 functional specification,†Internet Draft, draft-ietf-manet-tora-spec-04. txt, (2001).

      [82] R. Shirani, M. St-Hilaire, T. Kunz, Y. Zhou, J. Li, and L. Lamont, “The performance of greedy geographic forwarding in unmanned aeronautical ad-hoc networks,†in Ninth Annual Communication Networks and Services Research Conference. IEEE, (2011), pp. 161–166.

      [83] Lin, Q. Sun, J. Li, and F. Yang, “A novel geographic position mobility oriented routing strategy for UAVs,†Journal of Computational Information Systems, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 709–716, (2012).

      [84] Peters, A. Jabbar, E. K. Cetinkaya, and J. P. Sterbenz, “A geographical routing protocol for highly-dynamic aeronautical networks,†in IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference. IEEE, (2011), pp. 492–497.

      [85] Zang and S. Zang, “Mobility prediction clustering algorithm for UAV networking,†in IEEE GLOBECOM Workshops. IEEE, (2011), pp. 1158–1161.

      [86] K. Liu, J. Zhang, and T. Zhang, “The clustering algorithm of UAV networking in near-space,†in 8th International Symposium on Antennas, Propagation and EM Theory. IEEE, (2008), pp. 1550–1553.

      [87] G. He, “Destination-sequenced distance vector (DSDV) protocol,†Networking Laboratory, Helsinki University of Technology, pp. 1–9, (2002).

      [88] C. Perkins, E. Belding-Royer, and S. Das, “Ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing,†Tech. Rep., (2003).

      [89] Z. J. Haas, M. R. Pearlman, and P. Samar, “The zone routing protocol (ZRP) for ad hoc networks,†(2002).

      [90] B. Karp and H.-T. Kung, “GPSR: Greedy perimeter stateless routing for wireless networks,†in Proceedings of the 6th Annual International conference on Mobile computing and Networking. ACM, (2000), pp.243–254.

      [91] C. Konstantopoulos, D. Gavalas, and G. Pantziou, “A mobility aware technique for clustering on mobile ad-hoc networks,†Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 4308, p. 397, (2006).

      [92] Z. Fu, H. Luo, P. Zerfos, S. Lu, L. Zhang, and M. Gerla, “The impact of multihop wireless channel on TCP performance,†IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 209–221, (2005).

      [93] J. Loo, J. L. Mauri, and J. H. Ortiz, Mobile ad hoc networks: current status and future trends. CRC Press, (2016).

      [94] W. D. Ivancic, D. E. Stewart, D. V. Sullivan, and P. E. Finch, “An evaluation of protocols for UAV science applications,†(2012).

      [95] R. Wang, T. Taleb, A. Jamalipour, and B. Sun, “Protocols for reliable data transport in space internet,†IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 11, no. 2, (2009).

      [96] Zanella, N. Bui, A. Castellani, L. Vangelista, and M. Zorzi, “Internet of things for smart cities,†IEEE Internet of Things journal, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 22–32, (2014).

      [97] Z. Shelby, K. Hartke, and C. Bormann, “The constrained application protocol (CoAP),†(2014).

      [98] Banks and R. Gupta, “MQTT version 3.1. 1,†OASIS standard, vol. 29, (2014).

      [99] Bacco, M. Colucci, and A. Gotta, “Application protocols enabling internet of remote things via random access satellite channels,†in IEEE International Conference on Communications. IEEE, (2017), pp. 1–6.

      [100] N. De Caro, W. Colitti, K. Steenhaut, G. Mangino, and G. Reali, “Comparison of two lightweight protocols for smartphone-based sensing,†in IEEE 20th Symposium on Communications and Vehicular Technology in the Benelux. IEEE, (2013), pp. 1–6.

      [101] B. Bruns, “Development of a minimalistic low-cost UAV platform for simple airborne measurements,†Informatik in der Land-, Forst-und Ernahrungswirtschaft 2017¨ , (2017).

      [102] V. Scilimati, A. Petitti, P. Boccadoro, R. Colella, D. Di Paola, A. Milella, and L. A. Grieco, “Industrial internet of things at work: a case study analysis in robotic-aided environmental monitoring,†IET Wireless Sensor Systems, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 155–162, (2017).

  • Downloads

  • How to Cite

    H. Sawalmeh, A., & Shamsiah Othman, N. (2018). An Overview of Collision Avoidance Approaches and Network Architecture of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). International Journal of Engineering & Technology, 7(4.35), 924-934. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i4.35.27395